AES Encryption Algorithm Explained: Advanced Encryption Standard Tutorial

What is AES?

AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) is a symmetric-key block cipher adopted by the US NIST in 2001. It replaced DES as the standard encryption algorithm and is widely used worldwide for securing sensitive data.

Key Characteristics

Symmetric key: Same key used for encryption and decryption. For more on symmetric encryption basics, see Understanding Cryptography: Key Agreement and Symmetric Encryption.
Block cipher: Processes data in fixed-size blocks
Block size: 128 bits (16 bytes)
Key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits

AES Key Sizes and Rounds

The number of rounds depends on the key size:

128-bit key: 10 rounds
192-bit key: 12 rounds
256-bit key: 14 rounds

Basic Terminology

Byte: Group of 8 bits
Word: 4 bytes = 32 bits
State matrix: 4×4 matrix (16 bytes) storing intermediate results during encryption
Plaintext: Original message (128 bits = 16 bytes)
Ciphertext: Encrypted output (also 128 bits)

State Matrix Structure

The input plaintext is arranged into a 4×4 matrix where each cell contains one byte:

4 rows × 4 columns = 16 bytes total
Bytes are filled column-wise (first column, then second, etc.)

Key Expansion

The original cipher key is expanded to generate round keys:

A 128-bit key produces 44 words (4 words per round × 10 rounds + 4 initial words)
Number of keys generated = number of rounds + 1
Each round uses 4 words (one column per word)

AES Encryption Process Overview

AddRoundKey (initial): XOR plaintext with first 4 words (w0-w3)
For each round (except last):
- SubBytes
- ShiftRows
- MixColumns
- AddRoundKey
Last round (no MixColumns):
- SubBytes
- ShiftRows
- AddRoundKey
Output: 128-bit ciphertext

The Four Transformations

1. SubBytes (Substitution)

Each byte is substituted using a fixed 16×16 S-box
The S-box provides confusion (non-linear transformation)
Input byte's first 4 bits determine row, last 4 bits determine column
Output is a new byte from the S-box
Same S-box used for all bytes

2. ShiftRows (Permutation)

Provides diffusion by shifting rows cyclically to the left
Row 0: No shift
Row 1: Shift by 1 byte
Row 2: Shift by 2 bytes
Row 3: Shift by 3 bytes
For decryption, inverse ShiftRows shifts to the right

3. MixColumns (Mixing)

Each column (4 bytes) is multiplied by a fixed constant matrix

Constant matrix:

[2 3 1 1]
[1 2 3 1]
[1 1 2 3]
[3 1 1 2]

Output is a new 4×1 column (4 bytes)
Provides diffusion across bytes in each column
Not performed in the last round

4. AddRoundKey (Key Addition)

Simple XOR operation between the state matrix and the round key
Each round key is 4 words (16 bytes) arranged as a 4×4 matrix
Provides the encryption key's influence

Decryption Process

Uses inverse transformations in reverse order
Round keys applied in reverse order (start with last round key)
Inverse SubBytes, Inverse ShiftRows (right shift), Inverse MixColumns

Why AES is Secure

Stronger than DES (larger key size, more complex structure)
Substitution-permutation network (SPN) structure. For a comparison with other block cipher modes, see Understanding ECB and CBC Modes of Block Ciphers: Security Implications.
Multiple rounds ensure complete diffusion and confusion
Resistant to known attacks when implemented correctly
AES is a modern block cipher; for background on earlier methods, refer to Understanding Historical Ciphers and Modern Cryptography.

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What is AES encryption and how does it work?

What are the key sizes and number of rounds in AES?

Why is AES considered secure?

What is the role of the S-box in AES?

What is the difference between ShiftRows and MixColumns in AES?

How does key expansion work in AES?

How does AES decryption differ from encryption?

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