Comprehensive Review of AP Human Geography: All Units Summarized

hello there jack verse and welcome back to the mr sin channel today is the day geographers this is the moment you've

been waiting for this is the day that we summarize all seven units of ap human geography

in one video now this video is going to be going fast the goal of this video isn't to teach you

everything in the class instead it's to review a lot of the highlights make sure you understand the main

concepts of each unit if you need more help with any of the specific content in this video check out my topic review

videos they cover everything in this class in a lot more depth the goal of this video is to help

you review the day before you take that ap test or before a final exam that way all these concepts are fresh in

your mind and you're ready to take the test also if you've been watching my topic review videos throughout this

entire school year you know that i have a resource called the ultimate review packet

this is a resource that covers every single unit of ap human geography it comes with summary videos for the

units study guides answer keys practice quizzes two full practice ap tests to help you

get ready for that big day and if you haven't checked it out yet i highly recommend checking

it out it will definitely help you get an a in your class and also a five on the national exam for those of you who

have gotten the ultimate review packet and for those of you who have become youtube members i want to say thank you

for the support because of you guys i'm able to continue to make more resources

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buying the ultimate review packet it supports the channel if you haven't checked out the ultimate review packet

yet you can find a link for it in the description of this video also don't forget to check out the

misterson discord server there's a whole community of students who are reviewing for the ap test

it's a great community to be a part of it's free and you can join anytime all right geographers now comes the time

to start this review hit that subscribe button like this video share the video and let's start

with unit one the first unit starts off with maps and we're looking here at thematic maps reference maps different

map projections and the important thing here is to make sure you can read maps and

analyze them be able to see different patterns at different scales and to be able to interpret different types of

data when looking at the different types of map projections remember that each map projection will struggle with

distortion we can see this happen in the shape in the area the distance or the direction

for example the mercator map has distortion almost every single aspect of it except for direction

that's why it was used for naval expedition if we look at different continents and countries we can see that

the shape the size and the location is actually off another thing to remember when we're

looking at maps is gis geographic information systems which layer data on maps and allows us to see

different spatial relationships oftentimes the information that we're looking at in our class and the patterns

we're analyzing whether it be on our maps or our data is found through qualitative and

quantitative research remember quantitative research often uses the census

the information is going to be in number form and it's not up for discussion qualitative normally is looking at

people's attitudes beliefs or feelings it's up for discussion and it does a great job of showing us information

about what people are thinking governments will use information from quantitative and

qualitative to be able to decide where they should build a new school or where we need more grocery stores or

different zoning laws we could also see businesses use this information to determine the medium

income which could help them better locate their store in a profitable neighborhood even us individuals use

this information to determine where we live we'll look at the crime rates we'll look at what schools are available in

the neighborhood and that informs us on our day-to-day lives the next part of the unit is all

about spatial concepts here we want to understand how technology and advancements in communication

have actually decreased distance decay how it's made us more connected than ever before

and how different patterns in space between different areas can create a unique sense of place or a

unique cultural landscape another theme that we can see in the first unit that comes up throughout the whole course is

environmental sustainability here we see it first presented to us with environmental determinism and

possibilism remember environmental determinism says that the environment sets restrictions

on society and culture and that culture and society can't really do much about those

certain locations will limit growth in society while environmental possibleism looks at how society can

shape and modify the environment to suit its needs the last two concepts from this unit are important ones and they'll

also come up throughout this entire class and it's scale and scale of analysis

and this is where a lot of students get tripped up on and they get confused remember scale of analysis is looking at

how data is organized how it's being chunked together is it organized on a national

scale of analysis where it's based around countries boundaries or is it looking at

more of a local level maybe we're looking at counties while scale is just looking at how much of the earth's

surface we're viewing and remember with scale we have small scale maps and large scale maps and this

is where a lot of students get confused a small scale map would be like a map of the world we're seeing a lot of the

earth's surface but we have very little details we have to use more generalizations

however a large scale map would be like a county map where we're looking at a specific place on earth

we can see a lot of details in the map however we see less of the earth's surface all right we have one more thing

for unit one and that's the different types of regions and you'll want to make sure you have a good understanding of

these different types we can see that we have functional or nodal regions which are geographic areas that are organized

around a node they have a center point oftentimes based around different economic

activities travel or communication think of an airport or a pizza store and their range

in which they'll deliver to we also have perceptual or vernacular regions these are geographic regions

that don't have a perfect definition and they only exist because of people's beliefs

their feelings or attitudes of a region think of the middle east and lastly we have formal and uniform regions where we

have geographic areas with common attributes normally defined by different economics

social political or environmental characteristics think of a state's boundaries for this

one so unit 2 is all about population and migration this is a big unit for the class and it connects to a lot of the

other units definitely spend time reviewing this one it starts off by looking at population

distribution we're trying to understand where people living in the world and where are they

not living remember people live all over the world and they live for different

opportunities different economic social political also environmental

and areas that provide more opportunities will attract more people to

those areas larger urban areas will offer more economic and social opportunities for residents which will

pull more migrants into the settlement while smaller rural settlements will offer

less economic and social opportunities however they'll also have homes and buildings more dispersed more land is

readily available and so we'll have a quieter lifestyle here now another concept that comes up

when we're talking about distribution is population density and remember we have a couple different densities

we can look at our arithmetic density which looks at the total amount of people divided by our total amount of

land we also have our physiological density which looks at the total population

divided by the arable land showing how many people are going to have to feed and lastly we have our agricultural

density which shows us how many farmers we have divided by our total amount of herbal land

this lets us know how efficient we are and how much food are we producing per farm but the next part of this unit is

going to be important that you review some vocabulary you want to make sure you understand the different ways we

could look at population whether we're talking about a country's cbr a cdr the nir

their growth rate overall if we're looking at our sex ratios the doubling time

or also our dependency ratios all of these show different aspects of society that are going to be important for you

to understand when we're looking at population data also definitely definitely definitely

make sure you review population pyramids and look at a couple different countries in different stages of the demographic

transition model this will help you better understand how to interpret these charts

remember if we have a really large base we're probably in more of an early stage in that demographic transition model

however on the other hand if we're looking at population pyramid that's more top heavy

we're probably in a later stage of the demographic transition model and we might be having some issues with

our dependency ratio which means we actually might be putting more burdens on the working class not just mention

the demographic transition model and this is arguably one of the most important models in this entire class

stage one of the demographic transition model is categorized by low growth our cbr and cdr are both really high and

they end up cancelling each other out when we move into stage two is when the industrial revolution or the medical

revolution occurs this allows our deaths to finally fall but our births remain high so we see a

big population boom and it isn't until we start seeing more urbanization and social and economic

opportunities occur that we see a transition into stage three that's when our births slowly

start to come down and our growth rate becomes more moderate and then again we see a change happen when we go into

stage four when women finally get more opportunities in society economic and social

and we start to see a zpg a zero population growth as now our births and deaths match again and they're lower

however we also have the debated fifth stage as well and this is where our deaths actually rise above our births

and we start to see our population decrease understanding this model is key to understanding societies around the

world and it not only helps us understand their economic and social opportunities

migration patterns or urbanization we can also see what's going on with death and another model to quick make

sure you review is the epidemiologic transition model this one follows the demographic

transition model and it looks at causes of death in each of the stages for the most part it lines up pretty

well with the demographic transition model however with stage five of the epidemiologic transition model we do see

some variants and there's a little bit of differences that occur now in looking at population

pyramids or the demographic transition model sometimes we can see external forces that change our population growth

for example sometimes we'll see pro-natalism use where we see governments actually implement policies

that will motivate citizens to have more kids and increase the population growth or some

countries use anti-natalism where they'll actually create policies that will restrict population growth and

try to motivate people to have less now the last aspect of population growth that i want to make sure we address in

this video before we go into migration is going to be malthus and neo-malthusians remember malthus thought

we'd have a malthusian catastrophe he believed that population would continue to grow exponentially

and our food production would only grow arithmetically and eventually we would hit a point where we would exceed our

carrying capacity today we still have people who believe in us ideas and they'd be known as

neo-malthusians you know malthusians believed malthus was right he was just too limited in his scope instead of just

being food we need to look at all of the world's resources and they believe that eventually we'll

hit a time where our population will exceed the earth's carrying capacity and then again we'll hit that

catastrophe the next part of this unit is all about migration and we have to focus on different push and pull factors

remember pole factors are things that make people want to come to an area while push factors are things that make

them leave an area people move for a variety of reasons but we can see that most of the time it's because of

political economic social or environmental reasons with the number one reason why people move being

economics when migration occurs we can see that it's often either forced or voluntary migration

forced migration happens due to events that put the migrants life or family's life in jeopardy

causing them to migrate or risk their own safety voluntary migration on the other hand is where the migrant chooses

to migrate on their own accord without fear of persecution or death remember there's a bunch of different types of

migration that can occur and it's important for you to understand all the different vocab in this class

also understand that when migration happens like ravenstein noticed we'll have a counter migration if people

are moving from point a to point b these places are now connected and they'll influence each other through a

variety of ways for unit two the big concepts to definitely review are gonna be the demographic transition model

population pyramids and a lot of the vocab make sure you also understand how different migrations happen

and the different types of migrations that can occur how it can lead to diffusion acculturation assimilation

or even cultural resistance unit 3 is all about culture hence the name of the entire unit however one of the things

this unit seeks to do is to promote cultural relativism over ethnocentrism cultural relativism is

when we view a culture through their perspective we do not hold the culture to our

cultural standards however when we're talking about ethnocentrism that's when we're going to view another culture

and we're going to judge that culture based on our own social norms and cultural standards when talking about

culture we're looking at a group shared practices we're looking at their beliefs their attitudes their

customs their technologies their food and sometimes we can even observe the culture in the actual landscape it's

known as the cultural landscape the cultural landscape comprises the different land use patterns a society

has it's made up of their agricultural practices different religious and

linguistic characteristics different architectural styles which might range from a traditional style or

post-modern style or other ways culture has expressed itself in the physical features of the

landscape or settlement understanding culture is important it allows us to understand how the different genders

will be treated what opportunities will there be for men and women in society

what types of food will be made also what types of diets are we going to be experiencing

and what goods and services will be offered all of this can show insight into a society we can also look

at different cultural centripetal and centrifugal forces that push and pull society together

these forces can create a unique sense of place and a unique cultural identity in the last unit we quickly reviewed

migration and we talked about how when people migrate diffusion occurs and a big part of this unit besides

culture religion and language is diffusion and there's different types of diffusion that we can see

diffusion can happen through relocation diffusion which is when the earth starts to shrink we're not seeing new people

take on the cultural trait instead we have movement from one place to another we also have expansion

diffusion where the amount of people participating in a cultural trade is growing

this can happen through either hierarchical diffusion where diffusion happens through a system of structures

moving oftentimes from a top down contagious diffusion which is diffusion that spreads in all directions

allowing everyone to have access to the cultural trait without any barriers preventing diffusion

or we could also look at stimulus diffusion which is when a cultural trait diffuses

and it adapts to the different cultural traits of the area that it's diffusing to throughout history we could see how

diffusion has occurred through colonialism and imperialism which led to the spread of english

which eventually became a lingua franca or how religion has spread throughout the world

as we saw christianity and islam diffuse globally as they became universalizing religion today we can see diffusion

happens through urbanization and globalization but mainly through the internet and advancements in

transportation and communication we're more connected than ever before

and that has led to space-time compression which allows us to communicate with people

all over the world and reduces the impact of distance decay all this diffusion can lead to cultural

resistance to occur as we might start to see people protest or go against different migrant communities

or new cultural traits at the same time we can see acculturation assimilation syncretism and multiculturalism as we

see cultures merge and adapt to one another and change and sometimes we might see

cultures isolate themselves such as folk and indigenous cultures which want to try and protect their unique cultural

identity from a global culture the next part of this unit that you definitely want to

spend some time on but you also want to make sure you don't get too bogged down in

is the religions understand the difference between universalizing religions and

also ethnic religions universalizing religions would be christianity islam buddhism and sikhism while ethnic

religions would be judaism and also hinduism when you're reviewing these religions make sure you have an

understanding of how they impact the cultural landscape where was their hearth how did they diffuse

what are their major beliefs but don't get bogged down in all the dates and the time frames or all of the religious

texts focus on how these impacted the different geographic landscapes in which

they occupy also don't forget to look at how ethnic and universalizing religions diffuse

universalizing religions want to fuse a lot more throughout the world and they want to convert more followers where

ethnic religions are seeking to protect their identity and are not trying to please everyone the last concept they

want to review for unit 3 and again you want to make sure you don't get bogged down and all the little details here is

language focus on language families around the world where did they originate how did they diffuse

how are different dialects spoken in different regions how can the english sounds very different depending on where

you are in the united states or where you are in the world focus on how language is diffused and

how it impacts the cultural landscape unit 4 deals with a ton of different concepts and honestly i think this is

one that's more difficult for students we're changing our scale all the time at one point this unit we're talking

about a very local scale with gerrymandering and voting districts and the next point we're talking about the

united nations and supernational organizations so it's important to make sure that

you're kind of following how scale changes throughout this unit first thing you got to understand is the difference

between a nation and a state a nation is not a state a nation is made up of a group of people who have a

shared history a shared cultural identity and a history of self-determination

while state on the other hand is an entity that has a permanent population a sovereign government and is recognized

by other states and this distinction becomes important when we're trying to understand what a nation-state is a

nation-state is a state that's made up of one nation it's a homogeneous state it's the opposite of a

multinational state which is a state that's made up of multiple nations two or more but they've agreed to live

in peace co-exist together as one under one state and not to keep piling on with the vocab but we also have a

multi-state nation a multi-state nation is a nation that exists in multiple states

for example the korean nation which exists in north korea and also south korea

plus we also have to talk about a stateless nation which is a nation that doesn't have an actual state

a great example this would be the kurdish nation other political organizations that you'll probably want

to touch up on is going to be autonomous regions and also semi-autonomous region now another important concept that we

have to have a good understanding of is self-determination when we're looking at nations nations

have self-determination which is their right to be able to govern themselves without any influence from external

powers or other states the reason why they do this is because they want to protect their cultural

identity and they don't want to be ruled by a different nation another concept that kind of comes back up in this unit

is colonialism and imperialism where we can see political boundaries are created military conquest and diffusion happens

and we can also see power expressed through territoriality we can see this expansion in political power illustrated

in shatter belt regions which are regions that are caught between two external fighting powers today we could

also look at the impact of neocolonialism the new form of controlling a country without actually

controlling them here a country uses their economic or political influence

to influence a country and control them without directly occupying or setting troops

and since we're on the topic of political influence we got to talk about political boundaries and their creation

we have relic boundaries that no longer exist however they still impact the cultural

landscape think of the berlin wall here or antecedent boundaries that are boundaries that have existed before

human settlement we also have subsequent boundaries which are based on different ethnic groups and

cultures and that's the defining factor of the boundary and consequent boundaries which are

boundaries that are actually used to divide different cultural groups and accommodate their differences we

also can look at superimposed boundaries which are created by a foreign state a great example of a superimposed boundary

is the majority of african countries if we look at the scramble for africa we can see that european powers created

most of those boundaries the last boundary we could look at is geometric boundaries which are cultural

boundaries that are straight lines that go with the parallels of latitude we can also look at boundaries that exist in

the sea here we can see the law of the sea which is made up of a variety of different

zones we can see territorial waters which stretch 12 nautical miles off the

coastline of a country then we have the contiguous zone which extends another 24 miles off the coast

and then the exclusive economic zone which extends 200 nautical miles off of the coastline

and lastly anything past the eez is international waters and to add a little bit more fun to our

boundary review we also have to talk about gerrymandering and voting districts

voting districts get redistrict every time the census is completed depending on where you live in the world you might

see your voting districts redistricted differently for example many european countries use

a third party organization to try and read district boundaries in a fair manner however in the united states

many of the politicians are the ones that set the voting districts and this leads to gerrymandering

gerrymandering is the redistricting of a voting district in order to create a district that's more favorable to your

party it gives you an edge over your competition and some people talk about

how the corrupt nature of this actually makes it so politicians are picking the voters

instead of the voters picking the politicians all right so we've talked about political power we've talked about

political boundaries let's actually further our discussion about political power though

and let's look at one state let's talk about unitary and federal states a unitary state is going to concentrate

their power all the federal or the national government no power will be shared with the

regional levels on the other hand a federal state is going to concentrate their

power between the national government and regional governments power here is shared and so it's

distributed we can see when looking at states and how their power set up or also how their geography is

we can see that some states will experience more centripetal forces and others will experience more

centrofugal forces centrifugal forces are things that will push a state apart things like terrorism irredentism or

isolated cultural groups on the other hand centripetal forces will unite a country together

keeping a country stronger and preventing things like devolution from occurring

devolution remember is the transfer of power from a national government down to a regional government it's that process

of transferring power last part of this unit deals with state sovereignty remember state sovereignty is the

state's right to govern itself and we can see that in the recent decades that this is becoming

challenged for a variety of reasons we can see devolution challenging advancements in technology

interference now from foreign states through social media or trying to interfere with elections of states

we also can see supernational organizations and how they impact a state sovereignty when states

join supernational organizations such as the european union nato or the un they give up some of their sovereign

control they have to follow the rules and restrictions for these new international organizations however by

joining supernational organizations states get the benefit to be able to solve

complex global issues participate in trade agreements and also military alliances

that not only makes their state better off but the rest of the world's community ladies and gentlemen we

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exam unit 5 starts out with extensive and intensive agricultural practices

intensive agricultural practices are located near population centers and focus on maximizing agricultural

production these practices require a lot of labor and capital

examples of these agricultural practices would be plantation farming which can be found in less developed countries

another type of intensive agriculture is mixed crop and livestock this can be found in developed countries

here we can see farmers produce crops and livestock however most of the crops are fed to the livestock next we have

market gardening which is located in regions with longer growing seasons here we have fruits and vegetables that

are picked and then processed eventually being shipped across the country to the market extensive

agricultural practices on the other hand are located farther away from population centers

here we need a lot more land and most of the work is done by hand examples of extensive agricultural

practices would be shifting cultivation which is often found in developing countries with

tropical regions here subsistence agriculture is at play remember subsistence agriculture focuses on

feeding your family or yourself or your community the goal is not to make a profit well commercial

agriculture on the other hand is focused on generating a profit the goal here is to scale up your business

and to be able to generate more profit oftentimes commercial agriculture is larger and is using more technology

where subsistence agriculture has smaller farm sizes and is done more by hand

another form of extensive agriculture is nomadic herding which is found in dry air climates

here farmers are nomadic they move with their animals instead of practicing sedentary agriculture our last extensive

example is ranching which uses a lot of land for the cattle or sheep to graze here it's located farther away from

urban areas due to the amount of land needed in order for the animals to graze the next part of the unit looks at

different settlement patterns and survey methods and honestly this part of the unit isn't too bad we can see that we

have clustered settlements that have a higher population density here homes are packed together in close quarters

on the other hand we also have dispersed settlements which have a lower population density

with homes and buildings being spaced out and lastly we have linear settlement patterns these

settlements are located along a river a road or trains different ways of being able to connect

to a transportation route and they're built in a line we're looking at different survey methods we could look

at meats and bounds which are used for short distances and oftentimes are based off key geographic features in the area

we could also look at long lots which divide land up into narrow parcels that each have connections to a

transportation system whether it be a road or also a river and lastly we could look at a township and

range which uses longitude and latitude to create a grid-like system across a geographic area if we shift our focus

over to different agricultural hurts such as the fertile crescent or the indus valley river

we can not only see where different crops and animals originated from but we can also see how they diffused

historical events such as the colombian exchange led to the diffusion of different agricultural practices

and products around the world right now the next part of this unit deals with agricultural revolutions and we can

start with the first agricultural revolution which was around the neolithic revolution

here we started to see the form of sedentary agriculture take off however it wasn't until the second

agricultural revolution that happened with the industrial revolution that we really saw a transformation in

our food production this is when new technologies were introduced like the seed drill that allowed us to be

able to increase our food output we were able to have a greater food surplus

this also allowed for the enclosure movement to happen it changed migration patterns ways of living

and we also started to see a new globalized economy this transformed how we produce food and it led to a

population boom eventually we get into the green revolution where we started to see the

introduction of gmos hybrid plants new chemical fertilizers pesticides and herbicides

all of this again revolutionized our food production and allowed us to have higher yielding crops now these changes

in agricultural production also led to some new practices such as mono cropping this is when farmers grow

the same crop each year to increase the production this allows farmers to become more

productive and efficient with their production however it also can deplete nutrients in the land we could also

start to see monoculture occur as well which is when farmers grow one type of crop at a period of time

however they'll switch that type of crop after each harvest another thing to remember when we're looking at changes

in agriculture and also our production is new technology has allowed farmers to achieve an economy of scale farmers

today are now able to scale up their business and actually produce crops at a cheaper rate

when they're producing more quantity thanks to advancements in technology large corporate farms are able to

produce a high amount of food at relatively low cost

this favors then large multinational corporations and agro businesses over small family farms that can't

achieve the same output one other concept that you should probably be familiar about is a value-added

specialty crop these are crops that gain in value as the production is occurring

for example wheat being turned into flour is more expensive than buying wheat on its own

or buying jam over just strawberries all of these changes in how we produce food how we make it and where we're selling

it have started some pretty heated debates should we be using genetically modified

food what's the impact of all these chemical fertilizers how does it impact our natural environment

our health and what about the workers who are working in the field these debates have led to the rise of organic

farming which seeks to remove chemical fertilizers and non-sustainable practices from the production of food

local food movements which try to counter food deserts free trade movements and urban farming

and community supported agriculture all of these movements seek to counter some of the ethical and

health and environmental concerns that we see in the modern agricultural system we can also see in this unit how

women play a role in society women in agriculture traditionally in developing countries make up a larger percentage of

subsistence farmers these farmers are part of the informal economy and traditionally are paid lower

wages offered less opportunities in society and are also more likely to be victims

of discrimination we can see as countries develop women gain more roles however we still see them primarily in

agricultural fields however now they're in an urban area but eventually as development continues

women are offered more economic social and political opportunities in society and we get closer to achieving equality

now the bid rent theory is the basis for a bunch of different concepts throughout ap human geography

the bid rent theory looks at the relationship between land prices and also an urban area or a large market

we can see that as we move farther away from an urban area the price of land goes down land becomes

more available because we have a lower population density this allows for more extensive

agricultural practices to occur and as we get closer to that urban area or that large market we see the price of

land go up this means that we're going to start to see more skyscrapers

more highly densely populated areas with people clustered together and we're also more likely to see

intensive agricultural practices occur and all of this brings us to our last concept and is arguably one of the most

important models if not really the only model in this unit and it's von tunin's model

von tun's model looks at the spatial layout of society at the center of his model we have the

market this is where we're going to see the sale of goods that are produced going out from the market we go into our

first ring which is our dairy and horticulture if we go out to the next ring we can see that we're in the forest

and the reason why it's located here is because the wood is used not only to cook food but also heat homes

and so it needs to be able to be close to the market so it's accessible after that we get into grain and field

crops which can be easily transported and don't really perish and even further out from there is

livestock livestock's located the furthest because it needs the most amount of land for the production of the

food and the livestock can simply walk themselves to the slaughterhouse

anything past there would be the wilderness now unit 6 starts out with sight and situation factors remember

when we're talking about side factors we're looking at unique things about a specific place

such as the climate natural resources or the absolute location while situation factors deal with more

connections between different places things like rivers roads airports or ports over time as communication and

technology has advanced we've seen more and more connections made between different settlements around the world

speaking of different settlements and cities make sure you have a good understanding of these different

settlements in cities you'll want to understand where they're located how they operate and how they connect with

one another now when talking about connectivity and settlements we can see the impact of

diffusion in world cities and how large settlements today interact cultural trends are diffused through

world cities and large urban areas and eventually spread throughout the city into surrounding settlement and when

we're looking at cities we can also look at the distribution of cities and in doing so we can look at

the gravity model and also cristal our central place there remember the gravity model predicts the likelihood of two

different places interacting with each other we can see that larger settlements are

more likely to have people and places interact with us next we could look at crosstall or central place theory and

again see themes that we saw in the gravity model we can see that larger settlements or

specialized businesses will have a larger range meaning they'll pull people in from a

farther distance we can also see when looking at the central place theory that does a great job illustrating urban

hierarchy we can see where cities towns villages and hamlets lay in the spatial association that we see

across our states one more thing before we go on to the next concept remember that the central

place theory could also analyze the locations of goods and services services that are more specialized will

have a larger range and people will travel larger distances for them they're also though probably going to

have a higher threshold so they're going to need to be located in a highly densely populated area

this will allow the business to be able to make enough money to support the store the next concept we have also

looks at the size and the distribution of settlements in a state we can see that states that follow the

primate city rule have their largest settlement as double the population of the second largest on the other hand we

can see that states that follow the rank size rule will have their largest settlement with about half the

population more than their second largest settlement and the third a third and the fourth the

fourth and so on here we have more large urban areas and economic development is more evenly

dispersed all right buckle up geographers the next part of this unit is a models and when we say models we

got a lot of models so sit back and just focus on the main concepts you've got this

we start with the burgess concentric zone model which has cities growing outwards from the cbd

in a series of rings newer homes are built on the outside of the model with older homes near the center the

next model we have is the hoyt sector model which has a city developed in a series of wedges with the cbd in the

center of the city here transportation and industry go through the city

this model is based around different economic and environmental factors next we have the harris and almonds

multiple nuclei model this model still has a traditional cbd however we start to see that the city

has multiple cbds each cbd or node of the city will attract certain people and job the next

model is our last model for more developed countries and it's the galactic model also known as the

periphery model here we start to see an expansion of the multiple nuclei model

we can also start to see edge cities form on the outside of the city limit moving into ldcs we can look at the

latin american city model which consists of a spine that connects the cbd to a wealthy shopping district

it also has a disamenity zone which consists of high poverty neighborhoods which may

lack essential services and infrastructure if we move over to africa we can look at the sub-saharan

african city model which consists of three different cbds we can also see informal settlements such as squatter

settlements located around the urban area remember squatter settlements and favelas are low-income neighborhoods

that people are living in without a legal claim to the land oftentimes there's higher crime rates

here more of an informal economy and we also see less infrastructure lastly we can look over

at asia to look at the southeast asian city model here we can see the model is based

around a port with a government zone that overlooks the day-to-day trade the next part of this unit brings back a

familiar concept and it's the bid rent theory when we're looking at the density

ingredient of different settlements we can see that highly densely populated areas which are near the cbd

oftentimes are going to build vertically that's because there's not a lot of land available and land's expensive

as we start to move away from highly densely populated areas and we start to move into medium densely populated we'll

start to see more single-family homes or multi-family homes such as triplexes and duplexes

however there won't be a lot of space between the property and a front backyard will be pretty limited

eventually when we get out into the suburbs or past the suburbs we start to get into lowly densely populated areas

now we see a large front yard and backyard plenty of space between different buildings and that actually

brings us to another concept which is infrastructure you see as our density gradient changes and as we move further

away from that urban area we start to see less and less public transportation

and goods and services be provided urban areas that invest in infrastructure public transportation

schools and healthcare will attract residents back into the urban area and they can then create more

sustainable cities this will counter urban sprawl and can actually reduce some cost now if cities want to create a

sustainable city they can do a variety of things we can see they could implement smart growth policies urban

growth boundaries new urbanism they could utilize green belts all of this would help make sure that a city is

sustainable and when we're talking about sustainability remember we're talking

about living in a way that we can meet our wants and needs today without compromising future

generations to do the same remember though whenever we change urban policy or even government policy for that

matter we will have some controversy some people fear that we'll start to have more segregation unequal economic

development or we'll lose historical neighborhoods which will reduce the amount of unique

cultural landscapes and that sense of place that has been created for generations in some of our cities and

unfortunately society is seen firsthand some of the disastrous consequences that can happen if urban policy or

government policy is not done in a way that is going to benefit society we could look at the implications of

redlining which led to discriminatory practices in home loans for minority communities

and further segregated our neighborhoods or blockbusting and how it contributed to white flight which again segregated

our neighborhoods even more causing unequal economic development based off race the next part of this

unit looks at another challenge that some cities are facing it's gentrification

on one hand we can see gentrification is raising property values and increasing wealth in low-income

neighborhoods they're traditionally near the cbd wealthier communities are starting to

move back into cities particularly in low-income areas taking old warehouses and converting them into

apartments and while this might be increasing new economic opportunities and creating new

jobs and businesses for these neighborhoods it has the unintended consequence of

also pushing out the residents that currently live there a couple other things to remember for this unit is the

different layers of government and how they can impact and actually create challenges for different cities

we can see that we have a federal government we have regional governments state governments local governments city

governments counties all of them have different says and different ideas of what they think

should be done with funding and also urban planning all right geographers last unit

and a big theme of this unit is globalization ever since the industrial revolution we've seen drastic changes in

how we produce our food goods and services changes to migration patterns

urbanization and even our settlement now in talking about an economy remember we have a formal economy and an informal

economy formal economies are jobs that are regulated or monitored by the government

the informal economy on the other hand is made up of jobs that are under the table they're not monitored or

regulated by the government next we can actually see how jobs are broken down into different economic sectors we have

the primary sector which is jobs and activities that revolve around natural resources

the secondary sector which revolves around manufacturing and the production of items

and then we have the tertiary sector which is characterized by service jobs and this sector can be broken down even

further into the quaternary sector which has jobs that are service based but are

dealing with the collecting and gathering of information and we can also break this

down into the quinary sector which are jobs that are focused on the decision process

think about a government official or a ceo today we're starting to see changes in where jobs are being offered

core countries are no longer offering as many jobs in the primary and secondary sector and are offering more jobs in the

tertiary sector while semi periphery countries and periphery countries are offering more

jobs in the primary and secondary sector but don't have as many jobs in the tertiary this movement of production

between the developed world and the developing can be seen when we're looking at the international division of

labor we can see that companies and core countries are taking advantage of the

cheap resources and cheaper labor in the developing world and this is allowing them to be

able to make products at a cheaper rate moving jobs from your home country to another

country is known as offshoring and we're starting to see this happen more and more in the modern

day not only because of the cheaper resources and labor but also because of

these manufacturing zones that make it economically advantageous for multinational corporations to relocate

production in developing countries less developed countries hope to motivate multinational corporations to invest in

their countries they hope to benefit from things like the multiplier effect which looks at an

original investment made in a country and that ripple affected half this new way in which

we're producing products and trading around the world has led companies to use things like

post fortis methods of production just in time delivery agglomeration and growth polls

all of these different things have allowed companies to be able to increase their profit margins and have also

increased world trade and globalization next we can look at the impact of neoliberal policies which seek to

promote free trade agreements around the world things such as nafta or the creation of

the world trade organization or the international monetary fund all seek to facilitate

world trade and a globalized economy at the same time though remember we can see countries resist globalization and try

to implement isolationist policies countries that utilize tariffs which are taxes on imports

trying to motivate companies to move back to their country at the end of the day though we can see that countries

that trade end up being better off and they see more goods and services be produced in their countries

we can see that countries that are more likely to trade with one another are ones that have specific wants and

needs that can be filled with another country or we could also look at countries with

a comparative advantage in a specific good or service by specializing in the production of

that item they can become more efficient and then they can trade for other products this allows countries to be

able to be better off and decrease their opportunity cost and at the same time

increase the amount of goods and services that their citizens have now on the screen right now we have a bunch of

different gross indicators these are different ways to measure a formal economy remember that gdp

is like taking the temperature of the economy we're trying to see how things are going

the gnp is looking at the production of all the country citizens and the gni is looking actually at the

standard of living these indicators help us understand what's going on with the formal economy

of a country we can also look at things like the gender inequality index or the human development index to better

understand what's going on with the country's inequality between different genders

or what's going on with the expected years of schooling the life expectancy or the standard of living

these metrics allow us to get a better idea of what's going on with social issues within a country another theme

that we've seen in other units that comes back up again is women in the economy we see that

women are more likely to be in subsistence agriculture or in the informal economy

they're more likely to get paid low wages have less illegal protection and also be more victims of

discrimination and sexual assault but we can also see programs in the developed world that seek to try and

reduce this gap offering things such as micro loans which seek to provide loans

given by individuals within a society not by a government organization the next thing in this unit is a couple

different theories and models we could first start off by looking at rostow's stages of economic growth the first

stages of the traditional society where jobs are centered around subsistence agriculture the majority work here is in

the primary sector from there we move into the second stage which is the preconditions for takeoff

society now starts to see demand from outside states for raw materials inside the state this creates more jobs

in the secondary sector but also still the majority of jobs in society are still in that primary sector

from there we move into the third stage now we're starting to see urbanization occur at a faster rate

and more and more job opportunities are starting to open up for citizens in the secondary sector next we go into the

drive to maturity stage where we start to see more specialization and global trade occur

the economy now also starts to become more specialized and we start to see the state become more independent from their

global trade partners lastly we have the age of mass consumption society now has many jobs that are in

the tertiary sector and society overall is more developed we're also starting to see society

produce different products that are not just for the needs of citizens but are instead

for their wants as well lastly if we look at wallerstein's world system theory we can see an economic

imbalance in the world an unequal economic development we can see that core countries have been taking

advantage of the less developed countries periphery and semi-perforate countries

end up producing many of the products and the goods and services for the core countries this leads to the

dependency theory where we can see that core countries disproportionately benefit

from this trade as the majority now of the perforated countries economies are based around

exporting their goods to the core countries instead of having those products for themselves

this also can lead to a commodity dependence as we'll start to see developing countries entire economy be

based around one commodity and if anything were to happen to the price of that commodity it would

devastate the entire economy on the other hand though core countries if something goes south with the trade

well they can find a different developing country to produce their products for this model

shows us how difficult it is for developing countries to be able to get to the same economic level as

core countries and we'll have to continue to see how this balance continues to trade

as we continue to see more countries move down the demographic transition model

further along restore stages of economic development and as technology continues to diffuse and change our global

community we'll have to see what happens in the future and just like that geographers

our time has come to an end hopefully this massive video helped you prepare for your ap test

or your final exam if you do need more help make sure to check out my topic review video the discord channel or my

ultimate review packet thank you so much for watching this video for subscribing for liking the

video and sharing it to other students i hope that you found value in this it's been an honor being able to teach you

throughout this entire school year and i wanted to wish you the best of luck on your final or your ap

test make sure to look for more resources in the future on this channel as i'll be doing live streams and other

reviews to be able to help you as we get closer to test time until then though i'm mr sin and you

know the drill geographers i'll see you guys next time online

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